The short version of prothymosin alpha fits in a sentence. The long version — which is the one that helps — is below.
This page was last updated on 2025-09-14 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
胸腺素α1（thymosin alpha 1，Tα1）是一种由28个氨基酸组成的酸性肽，N端被乙酰化，分子量约为3108道尔顿。该肽最早从牛胸腺组织提取物中分离，属于胸腺素组分5的一个成分。其序列在不同哺乳动物中高度保守，提示其具有基本的生物学功能。名称中的“α1”指其在电泳中的迁移位置，并非表示亚型编号。它既存在于胸腺，也存在于脾脏和淋巴结等免疫组织。
20世纪70年代，研究者从胸腺提取物中纯化出多种小肽，Tα1是其中被较早表征的一种。最初的制备依赖组织匀浆和层析步骤，产量低且成分复杂。随着固相肽合成技术成熟，实验室和工业界能够生产与天然序列一致的合成版本。合成肽的纯度可达95%以上，并可通过反相高效液相色谱和质谱进行鉴定。这一转变使研究不再依赖动物胸腺来源。
Clinical research has examined the peptide in chronic hepatitis B and C, as a vaccine adjuvant, and in sepsis and oncology settings. Findings across trials are mixed; some report changes in selected immune markers, while others find no clear clinical benefit. Many studies are small and define outcomes differently, which limits comparison. Regulatory approval is confined to a few countries, and the compound is not an approved drug in the United States or most of Europe.
Overall evidence quality varies considerably. A large share of published reports come from single centers, rely on surrogate immunological markers, or lack adequate control groups. Systematic reviews have highlighted this heterogeneity as a barrier to pooling results. Open questions include which patients, if any, might benefit, what treatment duration is appropriate, and whether any effect is independent of standard care. The peptide is often described as an immune modulator rather than a therapy for one disease, which complicates confirmatory trial design.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| 化学分类 | 线性肽 | 由28个氨基酸组成 |
| 分子量 | 约3108 Da | 合成版本一致 |
| 外观 | 白色至类白色粉末 | 冻干品 |
| 溶解度 | 易溶于水 | 微溶于有机溶剂 |
| 储存温度 | -20°C（冻干） | 溶解后2-8°C |
The peptide is generated in cells by cleavage of prothymosin alpha, a larger acidic protein encoded by the PTMA gene. Prothymosin alpha is expressed in many tissues, not only in the thymus, and its functions include nuclear roles in chromatin-related processes. The 28-residue fragment corresponds to the N-terminal portion of that precursor. How the cleavage occurs and how the fragment's concentration is regulated remain open questions; circulating amounts are small and difficult to measure reliably with routine assays.
Thymosin alpha 1 is a short peptide first isolated from bovine thymus tissue in the early 1970s during fractionation work aimed at identifying factors that influence T cell development. It belongs to a family of acidic thymic peptides, and the original preparations contained several components that were later separated by chromatography. The compound is now produced synthetically rather than extracted from tissue, which removes batch variability tied to animal sourcing. Researchers describe it as an immunomodulatory peptide because laboratory studies show effects on several cell types of the innate and adaptive immune systems.
The molecule consists of 28 amino acid residues with an acetyl group attached to the N-terminal serine. Its sequence is acidic overall, with several glutamic and aspartic acid residues distributed along the chain and no cysteine, so disulfide bridges do not form. The peptide carries a net negative charge at physiological pH. Because the N-terminus is blocked, the intact molecule resists degradation by many aminopeptidases, which contributes to its stability in biological fluids.
Early work on thymic extracts in the 1960s described a heat-stable acidic fraction containing many polypeptides. Separation of that mixture yielded individual components, and thymosin alpha-1 was named as one of them on the basis of assays for T-cell activity. The first preparations came from calf thymus, while subsequent research and clinical material has been chemically synthesized. Nomenclature in older papers is inconsistent, and the same peptide sometimes appears under different designations, which complicates literature searches.
Most published studies on thymosin alpha-1 report changes in immune measurements rather than clinical outcomes, and findings differ across designs and populations. Whether the peptide signals through one defined receptor or through several less specific interactions remains an open question. Its reported circulation half-life of a few hours complicates comparison of dosing schedules across trials. Mechanistic claims are frequently drawn from isolated cell cultures, and how far those results extend to whole organisms is unresolved.
Phosphine oxide is the inorganic compound with the formula H3PO. Although stable as a dilute gas, liquid or solid samples are unstable. Unlike many other compounds of the type POxHy, H3PO is rarely discussed and is not even mentioned in major sources on main group chemistry. H3PO has been detected by mass spectrometry as a reaction product of oxygen and phosphine, by means of FT-IR in a phosphine-ozone reaction
== Contraindications == This product should not be used to cover a large area for anesthetic affect causing an adverse reaction. The liquid and other forms of Cetacaine should not be administered via injection or used under dentures, on eyes or with patients with a cholinesterase deficiency.
In 2017, there were 39,773 deaths in the United States as a result of gunshot wounds. Of these 60% were suicides, 37% were homicides, 1.4% were by law enforcement, 1.2% were accidents, and 0.9% were from an unknown cause. This is up from 37,200 deaths in 2016 due to a gunshot wound (10.6 per 100,000). With respect to those that pertain to interpersonal violence, it had the 31st highest rate in the world with 3.85 deaths per 100,000 people in 2016. The majority of all homicides and suicides are firearm-related, and the majority of firearm-related deaths are the result of murder and suicide. When sorted by GDP, however, the United States has a much higher violent gun death rate compared to other developed countries, with over 10 times the number of firearms assault deaths than the next four highest GDP countries combined. Gunshot violence is the third most costly cause of injury and the fourth most expensive form of hospitalization in the United States.
After entering the body, aflatoxins may be metabolized by the liver to a reactive epoxide intermediate or hydroxylated to become the less harmful aflatoxin M1. Aflatoxin poisoning most commonly results from ingestion, but the most toxic aflatoxin compound, B1, can permeate through the skin. The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) action levels for aflatoxin present in food or feed is 20 to 300 ppb. The FDA has had occasion to declare both human and pet food recalls as a precautionary measure to prevent exposure. The term "aflatoxin" is derived from the name of the species Aspergillus flavus, in which some of the compounds were first discovered. A new disease was identified with unknown characteristics in England during the 1950s and 1960s, which increased turkey mortality. Later, aflatoxin was recognized in 1960 in England as a causative agent of the mysterious Turkey X disease that causes excessive mortality in turkey poults. Aflatoxins form one of the major groupings of mycotoxins.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
No figures are available on how many orphaned children also had been injured, but Gaza was reported to have the highest proportion of child amputations of any contemporary conflict. Medical workers said that while they can provide treatment for children's physical injuries, there is little lasting stability or support afterward. With most social institutions in collapse, only small community networks and aid groups remain to care for orphaned children or try to locate surviving relatives, efforts that are minimal compared with the overwhelming need. War Child is among the few humanitarian organisations contacted by emergency clinics about WCNSF cases. Its social workers search displacement camps for unaccompanied children and work to place them with adults willing to provide care. However, locating families willing to take in children is exceptionally difficult amid severe food shortages, and transporting a wounded child is very expensive. Amid worsening scarcity, many children, particularly boys, are banding together to survive, searching through rubbish for food or items to sell, and gathering in groups at food distribution sites, a perilous strategy born of extreme need.
=== Molecular basis === Research has shown that there are more than 35 specific genetic disorders associated with arthrogryposis. Most of those mutations are missense, which means the mutation results in a different amino acid. Other mutations that could cause arthrogryposis are: single gene defects (X-linked recessive, autosomal recessive and autosomal dominant), mitochondrial defects and chromosomal disorders (for example: trisomy 18). This is mostly seen in distal arthrogryposis. Mutations in at least five genes (TNN12, TNNT3, TPM2, MYH3 and MYH8) could cause distal arthrogryposis. There could be also connective tissue, neurological or muscle development disorders.
In difficult cases or in situations where intervention to restore blood flow is appropriate, coronary angiography can be performed. A catheter is inserted into an artery (typically the radial or femoral artery) and pushed to the vessels supplying the heart. A radio-opaque dye is administered through the catheter and a sequence of x-rays (fluoroscopy) is performed. Obstructed or narrowed arteries can be identified, and angioplasty applied as a therapeutic measure (see below). Angioplasty requires extensive skill, especially in emergency settings. It is performed by a physician trained in interventional cardiology.
== See also == Flags of the Soviet Republics Emblems of the Soviet Republics Commonwealth of Independent States Eurasian Economic Union National delimitation in the Soviet Union Bavarian Soviet Republic Hungarian Soviet Republic Slovak Soviet Republic Limerick Soviet Paris Commune Provisional Polish Revolutionary Committee (Polish SSR) Republics of Russia Federal subjects of Russia Post-Soviet states (former Soviet Republics)
=== Vertical farming === Some benefits of vertical farming include that plants grown with this technique can take place inside, be stacked up in layers, and can take advantage of soilless plant-growing techniques such as hydroponics.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
For his work on protein folding, Baker has received numerous awards, including the Overton Prize (2002), the Sackler International Prize in Biophysics (2008), the Wiley Prize (2022) and the BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award in the category "Biology and Biomedicine" (2022). For his work on protein design, Baker has received the Newcomb Cleveland Prize (2004),
In addition, people with trisomy 21 (Down syndrome), most of whom have an extra copy of the gene for APP, almost universally develop the symptoms and neuropathology of Alzheimer's disease by 40 years of age. Conversely, people with a rare mutation in the APP gene that reduces the production of Aβ and its tendency to aggregate are protected against Alzheimer's disease. Additionally, a major genetic risk factor for Alzheimer's disease is a specific isoform of apolipoprotein E, APOE4. Of the three major isoforms (APOE2, APOE3 and APOE4), APOE4 is linked to the least efficient removal of Aβ by astrocytes, which promotes the buildup of Aβ in the brain. The most efficient clearance of Aβ is achieved by cells bearing the APOE2 isoform, which protects against Alzheimer's disease. Evidence from tests such as imaging of protein deposits in the brain and measurement of brain-derived substances in cerebrospinal fluid and blood implicates abnormalities of Aβ as the earliest and most robust disease-specific change in Alzheimer's disease. The tau hypothesis proposes that abnormalities of the tau protein initiate the disease cascade, at least in cases of idiopathic Alzheimer's disease. The tau hypothesis is supported by the histopathological findings of Heiko Braak and colleagues that tauopathy can be detected in certain neurons before Aβ plaques are evident. Specifically, Alzheimer's starts with the hyperphosphorylation of tau in specific vulnerable neuronal populations such as the locus coeruleus and projection neurons of the association cortex.
== Early business career == Bello entered the Amos Tuck School at Dartmouth College, graduating with an MBA in 1974. While at Tuck he was named an Edward Tuck Scholar. After Tuck, his first business position was in brand management at General Foods, where he worked on Sanka and Maxwell House coffee brands. After an interim experience in athletic footwear as product director for Keds Brand footwear, he moved on to a strategic planning and marketing functions in the Pepsi Cola Division of PepsiCo where he worked on Mountain Dew and the Pepsi Challenge.
=== Awards received in the 1980s === Chairman, Gordon Research Conference on Analytical Chemistry; James B. Himes Merit Award of the Chicago Chromatography Discussion Group; M.S. Tswett Award and Medal in Chromatography; American Chemical Society Award in Chromatography; ISCO Award in Biochemical Instrumentation; Eastern Analytical Symposium Award in Chromatography; Chemical Instrumentation Award of the American Chemical Society; Distinguished Faculty Research Lecture, Indiana University.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
它不是经典的内分泌激素，而是一种免疫调节肽。其作用主要通过局部免疫细胞间的信号传递实现，而非经血液循环作用于远隔器官。
天然胸腺素α1主要从胸腺组织提取，也可在脾脏和淋巴结中检出。目前研究和临床使用的多为化学合成版本，不再依赖动物组织。
胸腺素组分5是牛胸腺提取物的粗组分，包含多种肽。胸腺素α1是其中一种被纯化和表征的单一肽，具有明确的28个氨基酸序列。
Trials differ in patient population, dose schedule, background treatment, and the endpoints used to judge success. Many are small and single-center, so random variation can dominate the reported effects.