The short version of immunomodulatory peptide fits in a sentence. The long version — which is the one that helps — is below.
This page was last updated on 2025-08-16 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
市售的胸腺素α1通常以冻干粉形式提供，溶解后用于注射。其氨基酸组成包括多个酸性残基，因此在中性pH下带负电荷。该肽可溶于水和生理盐水，但在有机溶剂中溶解度有限。储存条件通常为冻干状态下负20摄氏度，溶解后需冷藏并避免反复冻融。常见的同义词包括胸腺肽α1、thymalfasin和Tα1。
胸腺素α1（thymosin alpha 1，Tα1）是一种由28个氨基酸组成的酸性肽，N端被乙酰化，分子量约为3108道尔顿。该肽最早从牛胸腺组织提取物中分离，属于胸腺素组分5的一个成分。其序列在不同哺乳动物中高度保守，提示其具有基本的生物学功能。名称中的“α1”指其在电泳中的迁移位置，并非表示亚型编号。它既存在于胸腺，也存在于脾脏和淋巴结等免疫组织。
20世纪70年代，研究者从胸腺提取物中纯化出多种小肽，Tα1是其中被较早表征的一种。最初的制备依赖组织匀浆和层析步骤，产量低且成分复杂。随着固相肽合成技术成熟，实验室和工业界能够生产与天然序列一致的合成版本。合成肽的纯度可达95%以上，并可通过反相高效液相色谱和质谱进行鉴定。这一转变使研究不再依赖动物胸腺来源。
Whether the free 28-residue peptide circulates in human tissue remains debated. The best-documented human source is prothymosin alpha, a larger acidic protein that carries the sequence at its N-terminus. Reports of measurable peptide levels in serum and lymphoid tissue exist, yet some of that signal may come from cross-reacting fragments or from the parent protein. Most reviews therefore treat prothymosin alpha as the established human molecule and describe independent circulation of the small peptide as an unresolved question.
Immunological studies connect the peptide to multiple parts of the immune response. It has been reported to engage Toll-like receptor signaling, to promote dendritic cell maturation, and to influence the balance of T helper cell subsets. Changes in natural killer cell activity and in cytokine release appear in cell culture and animal models. These observations describe broad immunomodulatory behavior rather than a single defined receptor target, and the primary molecular interaction has not been settled.
Thymosin alpha-1 is a synthetic 28-amino-acid peptide whose sequence was first identified in extracts of bovine thymus tissue during the 1970s. The chain carries an acetyl group on its N-terminal serine. Its acidic residue content is high, which produces strong water solubility and an isoelectric point well below neutrality. Material supplied for laboratory and clinical use is manufactured by solid-phase peptide synthesis rather than purified from animal tissue. Different salt forms, such as the acetate, alter the counter-ion content without changing the peptide backbone.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| 化学分类 | 线性肽 | 由28个氨基酸组成 |
| 分子量 | 约3108 Da | 合成版本一致 |
| 外观 | 白色至类白色粉末 | 冻干品 |
| 溶解度 | 易溶于水 | 微溶于有机溶剂 |
| 储存温度 | -20°C（冻干） | 溶解后2-8°C |
The peptide was described in the 1970s as a component of thymic extracts, and early research focused on restoring immune function in immunodeficiency states. A synthetic version entered clinical development in the 1980s and is approved as a drug in several countries for conditions such as chronic hepatitis B and certain immunodeficiencies. Approval status varies widely by jurisdiction, and in the United States it is not an approved therapeutic. Regulatory and clinical positions differ, so statements about efficacy should be tied to specific indications and studies.
Thymosin alpha-1 is a synthetic peptide of 28 amino acids, corresponding to the N-terminal fragment of prothymosin alpha. Its sequence begins with acetylation at the N-terminus, a modification that affects stability and receptor interaction. The peptide is acidic, with a calculated isoelectric point near 4.2, and carries no disulfide bonds, so its secondary structure is largely flexible in solution. Molecular mass is approximately 3108 daltons. The native form was first isolated from bovine thymus tissue, while pharmaceutical material is produced by solid-phase peptide synthesis.
Thymosin beta-4 is a separate 43-residue peptide that binds actin and participates in cell migration; it shares no sequence similarity with thymosin alpha-1 despite the common family name. Other preparative materials, such as thymosin fraction 5 and thymopoietin, contain distinct mixtures or peptides. The shared thymosin label reflects the tissue of origin used in early purification, not a common structural core. Treating these molecules as interchangeable is a frequent source of confusion in laboratory reports and in popular summaries alike.
Thymosin alpha-1 is a synthetic peptide of 28 amino acid residues that corresponds to a naturally occurring fragment first isolated from thymus tissue. Its chain is acetylated at the amino terminus, a modification that shields the peptide from rapid cleavage by aminopeptidases. The molecule carries a net negative charge at physiological pH and dissolves freely in water. Researchers classify it as an immune-modulating agent rather than a classical hormone, because it acts on several cell types of both the innate and the adaptive immune system.
Stability depends on temperature, pH, and the number of freeze-thaw events the sample has experienced. Freeze-dried material is commonly held at -20 °C or colder, while reconstituted liquid is kept cold and used within a short window. Extreme pH and prolonged light exposure can promote deamidation, oxidation, or aggregation, particularly at asparagine and methionine positions. Adsorption to container walls can lower the measured concentration of a dilute solution even when the peptide molecules themselves remain intact.
Identity and purity are usually assessed by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography, which separates the target peptide from truncated or chemically modified byproducts. Mass spectrometry confirms the expected molecular mass and can indicate acetylation state or sequence errors. Amino acid analysis and peptide mapping supply complementary sequence-level information, while endotoxin testing is relevant for preparations intended for cell or animal work. Purity figures reported by suppliers refer to the method used and are not directly comparable across laboratories unless conditions are stated.
Lyophilized material is typically treated as a hygroscopic solid that should be brought to room temperature before the container is opened, which limits condensation on the powder. Reconstitution is commonly done with sterile water or a buffered diluent, and gentle mixing is preferred over vigorous agitation to reduce foaming and surface adsorption. Because peptides can bind to plastic and glass, diluents containing a small amount of carrier protein are sometimes used in laboratory work. Working solutions are generally aliquoted and prepared fresh rather than subjected to repeated freezing and thawing.
Thymosin alpha-1 is a 28-residue peptide first isolated from thymus tissue in the 1970s. It corresponds to the N-terminal portion of thymosin beta-4, from which it is cleaved in vivo. The peptide carries an acetyl group at its N-terminus, a modification that affects its charge and stability. Synthetic material produced by solid-phase peptide synthesis is chemically identical to the natural fragment and is the form used in research and clinical studies.
Laboratory work indicates that the peptide acts on cells of both the innate and adaptive immune systems. Reported effects include signalling through Toll-like receptors on dendritic cells, enhanced T-cell maturation, and increased natural killer cell activity. These actions are described largely from cell-culture and animal experiments, and the precise receptor-level events remain incompletely defined. Studies in humans have generally measured immune markers rather than a single defined molecular target. The resulting picture remains partly descriptive.
==== Desiccated animal thyroid ==== Desiccated thyroid extract is an animal-based thyroid gland extract, most commonly from pigs. It is a combination therapy, containing forms of T4 and T3. It also contains calcitonin (a hormone produced in the thyroid gland involved in the regulation of calcium levels), T1 and T2; these are not present in synthetic hormone medication. This extract was once a mainstream hypothyroidism treatment, but has been disregarded since the 1970s and its use is unsupported by evidence; British Thyroid Association and American professional guidelines discourage its use, as does NICE.
== History == The FODMAP concept was first published in 2005. In this paper, it was proposed that a collective reduction in the dietary intake of all indigestible or slowly absorbed, short-chain carbohydrates would minimize stretching of the intestinal wall. This was proposed to reduce stimulation of the gut's nervous system and provide the best chance of reducing symptom generation in people with IBS (see below). At the time, there was no collective term for indigestible or slowly absorbed, short-chain carbohydrates, so the term FODMAP was created to improve understanding and facilitate communication of the concept. The low-FODMAP diet was originally developed by a research team at Monash University in Melbourne, Australia. The Monash team undertook the first research to investigate whether a low-FODMAP diet improved symptom control in patients with IBS and established the mechanism by which the diet exerted its effect. Monash University also established a rigorous food analysis program to measure the FODMAP content of a wide selection of Australian and international foods. The FODMAP composition data generated by Monash University updated previous data that was based on limited literature, with guesses (sometimes wrong) made where there was little information.
==== 2018: Multiple leg injuries ==== McCormick was named as Oregon's starting tight end at the start of their 2018 football season, though his season was cut short due to an injury suffered while playing against the Bowling Green Falcons in Oregon's season opener. The injury, a torn deltoid ligament combined with a broken left fibula, occurred after his teammate blocked a defender into the back of McCormick's leg during the first quarter of the game. McCormick had one reception during the 2018 season opener, losing two yards on the play.
== Investments == Mubadala has invested in logistics software startup Turvo, Alphabet-owned self-driving technology company Waymo, Reliance Jio Platforms, UK life sciences company Envision, and Telegram. Mubadala is a parent company of GlobalFoundries, a semiconductor foundry company. Mubadala owns stakes in numerous companies, including a 7.5 percent share in the Carlyle Group. In 2007 Mubadala announced an initial investment in AMD. As of 2017 Mubadala had a stake of 12.9 percent in the chipmaker. In 2019 Mubadala sold its entire stake in AMD. In 2019, Mubadala and Falcon Edge Capital established Abu Dhabi Catalyst Partners, a $1 billion joint venture to invest in financial institutions. In November 2020, Mubadala transferred ownership of two information technology companies it previously owned, Injazat and Khazna, to artificial intelligence company, G42, and took a stake in G42. In 2021, Mubadala purchased a 2.6% stake in En+ Group, a manufacturer of green aluminum, from Polina Yumasheva, the former wife of Russian businessman Oleg Deripaska. The same year, Mubadala purchased MetrôRio, the company that holds the operations for the Rio de Janeiro metro, from Invepar. In 2016, Mubadala became the biggest external shareholder at Investcorp, after acquiring 20% stakes in the Bahraini firm. In 2023, a former UK minister, Gerry Grimstone was criticized for conducting and not declaring 13 meetings with Mubadala and Khaldoon al-Mubarak, after acquiring the role as an adviser and the chair of planned climate fund at Investcorp.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
At least five artists have made explicit reference to the α-helix in their work: Julie Newdoll in painting and Julian Voss-Andreae, Bathsheba Grossman, Byron Rubin, and Mike Tyka in sculpture. San Francisco area artist Julie Newdoll, who holds a degree in microbiology with a minor in art, has specialized in paintings inspired by microscopic images and molecules since 1990. Her painting "Rise of the Alpha Helix" (2003) features human figures arranged in an α helical arrangement. According to the artist, "the flowers reflect the various types of sidechains that each amino acid holds out to the world". This same metaphor is also echoed from the scientist's side: "β sheets do not show a stiff repetitious regularity but flow in graceful, twisting curves, and even the α-helix is regular more in the manner of a flower stem, whose branching nodes show the influence of environment, developmental history, and the evolution of each part to match its own idiosyncratic function." Julian Voss-Andreae is a German-born sculptor with degrees in experimental physics and sculpture. Since 2001 Voss-Andreae creates "protein sculptures" based on protein structure with the α-helix being one of his preferred objects. Voss-Andreae has made α-helix sculptures from diverse materials including bamboo and whole trees. A monument Voss-Andreae created in 2004 to celebrate the memory of Linus Pauling, the discoverer of the α-helix, is fashioned from a large steel beam rearranged in the structure of the α-helix.
Layne Thomas Staley (; born Layne Rutherford Staley; August 22, 1967 – April 5, 2002) was an American singer-songwriter. He was the original lead vocalist of Alice in Chains, which rose to international fame in the early 1990s as part of Seattle's grunge movement. He was known for his distinctive vocal style as well as his harmonizing with bandmate Jerry Cantrell. Before his success with Alice in Chains, Staley was also a member of the glam metal bands Sleze and Alice N' Chains. He was also a part of the supergroups Mad Season and Class of '99. "Man in the Box", the second single from Alice in Chains' debut album, Facelift (1990), garnered Staley critical recognition for his vocal style. Alice in Chains' EP Jar of Flies (1994), debuted at number one on the Billboard 200, making it Alice in Chains' first record—and the first-ever EP—to top the chart. However, Staley's deteriorating condition due to heroin abuse led him to enter a rehabilitation clinic. He began to work on a side project with several Seattle musicians, Mike McCready of Pearl Jam, Barrett Martin of Screaming Trees, and John Baker Saunders of the Walkabouts, which came to be Mad Season, while Alice in Chains went into hiatus. During Alice in Chains' hiatus, reports of Staley's drug addiction began to gain widespread circulation in fan and media communities, in part due to changes in his physical condition brought on by prolonged heroin abuse. On April 10, 1996, the band returned with a performance on MTV Unplugged in New York; it was Alice in Chains' first concert in two-and-a-half years.
=== Destruction and preservation === Because of its waterlogged condition the Flag Fen Basin was an area where peat deposits developed around 2000 BC, and they survive there today. The anaerobic conditions generated by silt deposits from the fens protected the wooden posts and rafters of the collapsed structures from rotting away under the influence of air and bacteria. In the 10th century BC the ground level was much lower than today, increasing around 1 mm (0.039 inches) per year as autumnal debris was added to the surface of the fens. By the early Roman period most of the structure was covered and preserved.
=== Efficacy === There is an average 52% decrease in inflammatory acne lesions by week 12. The combination is less effective than benzoyl peroxide/salicylic acid after short-term treatment of two to four weeks, but the two treatments showed similar effectiveness after ten to twelve weeks.
=== 2000–2002: The beginning of the rivalry === 50 Cent's single "How to Rob" quickly became an underground hit throughout New York and 50 Cent soon began work on his major label debut Power of the Dollar, set for release in 2000. Despite 50 Cent's local success with "How To Rob", his local success paled in comparison to Ja Rule's following the release of Rule 3:36 later that same year. Tensions began to form beyond conflicts between the two crews and record labels. In February 2000, both 50 Cent and Ja Rule were scheduled to perform at the same Atlanta nightclub. Prior to the performances, music executive Chaz “Slim” Williams who was managing 50 Cent at the time, arranged a meeting between 50 Cent and Ja Rule to discuss ending their dispute. According to multiple accounts, the meeting escalated into a physical altercation after Ja Rule, who was holding a baseball bat, allegedly made threatening gestures toward 50 Cent. In response, 50 Cent reportedly attempted to strike Ja Rule, prompting a scuffle between the two. Accounts of the incident differ regarding what occurred next. 50 Cent has claimed to have punched Ja Rule, knocked him unconscious and took his chain while Ja Rule has maintained that he struck 50 Cent with the baseball bat before the two engaged in a physical struggle. Black Child, an associate of Ja Rule, later alleged that members of Ja Rule’s entourage chased 50 Cent through a nearby hotel following the incident.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The precise direct molecular mechanism of action by which bromantane ultimately acts as a dopamine synthesis enhancer is unknown. However, it has been determined that activation of certain cAMP-, Ca2+-, and phospholipid-dependent protein kinases such as protein kinase A and especially protein kinase C corresponds with the manifestation of the pharmacological effects of bromantane. Bromantane may activate intracellular signaling cascades by some mechanism (e.g., agonizing some as-yet-undetermined receptor) to in turn activate protein kinases, which in turn cause increased transcription of TH and AAAD. The related drugs amantadine and memantine also have many properties similar to those of bromantane. Researchers discovered that amantadine and memantine bind to and act as agonists of the σ1 receptor (Ki = 7.44 μM and 2.60 μM, respectively) and that activation of the σ1 receptor is involved in the central dopaminergic effects of amantadine at therapeutically relevant concentrations; the authors of the study stated that this could also be the mechanism of action of bromantane, as it is in the same family of structurally related compounds and evidence suggests a role of dopamine in its effects. But this could also be seen as evidence of the contrary since bromantane has effects that are distinctly different from amantadine and memantine.
Action Half-Life is a mod for the first-person shooter video game Half-Life. It strives to simulate action movies, especially those directed by John Woo. Action Half-Life is the second mod in the "Action" series. The first was Action Quake 2 and the third was Action Unreal Tournament 2004.
== Inhibitors == Inhibitors have been designed with the aim of developing analgesic and antihypertensive agents that act by preventing neprilysin's activity against signaling peptides such as enkephalins, substance P, endothelin, and atrial natriuretic peptide. Some are intended to treat heart failure.
=== Bromley High Street === The town has a large retail area, including a pedestrianised High Street and The Glades centre, the main shopping mall, which has a catchment of 1.3 million people. Development at the nearby St. Mark's Square has seen further restaurants and a cinema established. Bromley High Street is also the location for the Bromley Charter Market, which runs on a Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday. King John granted a charter for the Market to be held every Tuesday in 1205, with Henry VI revising this charter to every Thursday in 1447. The Market sells food and confectionery items, clothing and other goods like jewellery.
=== Anti-thyroid drugs === Treatment with methimazole or propylthiouracil for hyperthyroidism, is commonly associated with an elevation of liver enzymes. To differentiate between hyperthyroidism and drug-related liver injury, it is recommended to check baseline liver enzymes prior to initiation of treatment. If liver injury related to anti-thyroid treatment is significant, switching to the alternative agent can be attempted in most cases. Cases of fulminant liver failure reported with propylthiouracil have led to a regulatory warning, and to guidelines recommending methimazole as the first line anti-thyroid agent.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
它不是经典的内分泌激素，而是一种免疫调节肽。其作用主要通过局部免疫细胞间的信号传递实现，而非经血液循环作用于远隔器官。
天然胸腺素α1主要从胸腺组织提取，也可在脾脏和淋巴结中检出。目前研究和临床使用的多为化学合成版本，不再依赖动物组织。
胸腺素组分5是牛胸腺提取物的粗组分，包含多种肽。胸腺素α1是其中一种被纯化和表征的单一肽，具有明确的28个氨基酸序列。
It is usually described as an immunomodulatory peptide rather than a classic circulating hormone. No endocrine gland is known to release it as a primary secretory product, and its measured presence in blood is not firmly established.